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| HS Code | 982527 |
| Chemical Formula | CH3COOH |
| Iupac Name | Acetic Acid |
| Molar Mass | 60.052 g/mol |
| Appearance | Colorless liquid |
| Odor | Pungent, vinegar-like |
| Density | 1.049 g/cm³ at 25 °C |
| Melting Point | 16.6 °C |
| Boiling Point | 118.1 °C |
| Solubility | Miscible with water |
| Pka | 4.76 |
| Viscosity | 1.056 cP at 25 °C |
| Refractive Index | 1.3716 |
| Flash Point | 39 °C (closed cup) |
| Autoignition Temperature | 463 °C |
| Specific Gravity | 1.049 |
As an accredited Glacial Acetic Acid factory, we enforce strict quality protocols—every batch undergoes rigorous testing to ensure consistent efficacy and safety standards.
| Packing | Supplied in 25-liter HDPE jerrycans with secure lids, clearly labeled for corrosivity, storing glacial acetic acid safely. |
| Container Loading (20′ FCL) | Load 20′ FCL with tightly sealed drums/IBCs of glacial acetic acid, secured upright, ventilated, segregated, with spill equipment and PPE accessible. |
| Shipping | Glacial acetic acid is a corrosive, flammable liquid shipped under UN 2789, Class 8. Transport requires corrosion-resistant containers, proper ventilation, and segregation from oxidizers and bases. Use approved drums or tanks, secure upright, and display clear hazard labels. Emergency spill response and personal protective equipment are essential during handling and transit. |
| Storage | Store glacial acetic acid in tightly sealed, corrosion-resistant containers (glass or compatible polyethylene) in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area. Maintain temperatures above 16°C to prevent freezing and container damage. Segregate from oxidizers, bases, and metals. Use secondary containment and secure upright storage away from ignition sources. |
| Shelf Life | Glacial acetic acid shelf life is three to five years if stored tightly sealed, away from moisture and heat. |
| Oxidation variable | Lower control limit | Typical operating band | Upper control limit |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acetic acid to p-xylene mass ratio | 3.0:1 | 4.0:1–5.0:1 | 6.0:1 |
| Recycled solvent water content | 1.5 wt% | 2.5–4.5 wt% | 6.0 wt% |
| Bubble-column temperature | 175 °C | 185–200 °C | 205 °C |
| Reactor overhead pressure | 1.2 MPa | 1.5–2.0 MPa | 2.5 MPa |
Vinyl acetate monomer production by ethylene acetoxylation uses a fixed-bed tubular reactor charged with a palladium-gold-potassium acetate catalyst on silica. The feed contains ethylene at 50–60 mol%, acetic acid at 15–25 mol%, oxygen at 5–8 mol%, and the balance as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or recycled off-gas. The reactor is operated at 150–160 °C and 0.8–1.0 MPa, with gas hourly space velocity in the range 2000–4000 h⁻¹. Acetic acid conversion per pass is typically 15–20%, ethylene conversion 8–12%, and selectivity to vinyl acetate monomer 92–95%, with carbon dioxide formation constrained to 3–5%. The oxygen concentration at the reactor inlet must remain below 8.0 mol% because higher oxygen partial pressure increases the combustion pathway and pushes the mixture toward flammability limits. Local hot spots above 165 °C reduce palladium dispersion and raise carbon dioxide selectivity irreversibly. Reactor tubes of 25 mm internal diameter use molten salt coolant on the shell side to control the exotherm. The recovered vinyl acetate monomer is distilled to a purity of 99.9 wt% min, water below 0.05 wt%, and acidity below 0.005 wt% as acetic acid, measured under ASTM D2190. Glacial acetic acid feed should contain less than 500 ppm propionic acid to prevent formation of allyl acetate and colour precursors. Downstream polymerisation yields polyvinyl acetate emulsions, polyvinyl alcohol, and ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers for photovoltaic encapsulation and barrier films.
Cellulose acetylation to cellulose triacetate and secondary cellulose acetate uses glacial acetic acid as solvent, swelling agent, and hydrolysis medium. Dissolving pulp with α-cellulose content of 95–98% and moisture below 6% is pre-activated in glacial acetic acid at 30–40 °C for 30–90 min. Acetylation is then performed with acetic anhydride at a mass ratio of 2.8:1 to 3.2:1 anhydride to dry cellulose, with sulfuric acid catalyst added at 0.8–1.5 wt% of cellulose. The reaction is initiated at 40–50 °C and allowed to advance to a triacetate degree of substitution above 2.9; temperature is then raised to 55–65 °C to maintain reaction rate while preventing excessive chain scission. Controlled hydrolysis is carried out by adding water or dilute acetic acid to reduce the degree of substitution to 2.4–2.5 for secondary cellulose acetate, corresponding to combined acetic acid content of 52–53 wt%, while cellulose triacetate retains 54–56 wt% combined acetic acid. Mixing is performed in sigma-blade kneaders or continuous high-viscosity reactors; thermal control and water addition rate determine the molecular weight distribution. The dope is precipitated into dilute acetic acid, washed countercurrently, and the solvent is recovered by distillation. Residual sulfate must be controlled below 0.1 wt% to avoid thermal degradation during later extrusion or solvent casting. Cellulose diacetate is processed into filter tow for cigarette filters, spectacle frames, and optical films, while cellulose triacetate is used in polariser protective films and photographic base. Food-contact applications require compliance with 21 CFR 175.300 and EU Regulation (EC) No 10/2011, with migration of free acetic acid and residual monomer verified by extraction testing.Liquid-phase chlorination of glacial acetic acid to monochloroacetic acid is conducted in a glass-lined stirred reactor at 85–120 °C with chlorine introduced through a dip pipe. Acetic anhydride is maintained at 2–5 wt% and sulfur at 0.5–1.0 wt% relative to acetic acid; the sulfur compound accelerates enolisation while acetic anhydride scavenges water and suppresses dichloroacetic acid formation. Chlorine addition is controlled to achieve a residence time of 4–10 h, with monochloroacetic acid yield typically 90–95 mol%, dichloroacetic acid 2–5 mol%, and trichloroacetic acid below 0.2 mol%. The off-gas contains hydrogen chloride and unreacted chlorine; hydrogen chloride is absorbed in water to produce 30–33% hydrochloric acid. Reactor materials in contact with the chlorinated acid system include glass-lined carbon steel, PTFE-lined piping, and tantalum or polyvinylidene fluoride valve seats; elastomeric gaskets are avoided because they embrittle in the presence of chlorine and acetic acid mixtures. Crude monochloroacetic acid is purified by vacuum distillation and flaked or stored at temperatures above 65 °C because the product solidifies at 61 °C. Commercial monochloroacetic acid is specified at 99.0 wt% min purity, with dichloroacetic acid below 0.5 wt% and water below 0.2 wt%. The material is converted into carboxymethyl cellulose, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, glycine, betaine, and thioglycolic acid. Carboxymethyl cellulose produced via sodium monochloroacetate etherification for food applications is assessed under 21 CFR 182.1745 and relevant monographs for degree of substitution and residual sodium glycolate.
Dilution of glacial acetic acid to food-grade acetic acid solutions is carried out with demineralised water in closed stainless steel or polypropylene dosing skids using positive-displacement metering pumps and static mixers. Vinegar is produced by diluting glacial acetic acid to 4–8 wt% acetic acid, while pickling brines are adjusted to an equilibrium acidity of 1.0–2.5 wt% in the finished product. Buffered systems for mayonnaise, dressings, and sauces use sodium acetate trihydrate at 0.25–0.60 wt% to hold pH between 3.8 and 4.2. Titratable acidity is determined according to AOAC 950.07, expressed as acetic acid, and the material is permitted as a food additive under 21 CFR 184.1005 and EU Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 E260. Glacial acetic acid has a freezing point of 16.6 °C; storage above 20 °C and heating of transfer lines above 25 °C are required to prevent crystallisation and maintain pumpability. The dilution reaction is exothermic, so acid must be added to water rather than water to acid when preparing working solutions above 10 wt% to avoid localised boiling and vapour generation.
Acetylation of salicylic acid to acetylsalicylic acid is carried out in glacial acetic acid as solvent with acetic anhydride as acylating agent. Salicylic acid is charged at 1.0 mol, acetic anhydride at 1.1–1.3 mol, and glacial acetic acid at 2.5–4.0 volumes relative to salicylic acid. Phosphoric acid or sulfuric acid is used as catalyst at 0.2–0.5 wt%, and the mixture is held at 60–85 °C for 60–120 min under a nitrogen blanket. At completion, the batch is cooled to 10–15 °C to crystallise acetylsalicylic acid, which is then centrifuged, washed with chilled glacial acetic acid, and dried under vacuum at 40–50 °C. The isolated yield is typically 88–95%. Residual salicylic acid is controlled below 0.3% m/m by colorimetric testing, residue on ignition below 0.1%, and residual acetic acid below 0.5% m/m by headspace gas chromatography. The relevant specifications are the USP monograph for Aspirin and the Ph. Eur. monograph for acetylsalicylic acid, with residual solvent limits aligned to ICH Q3C. Equipment downstream of the reactor includes glass-lined crystallisers and Hastelloy C-22 centrifuge components because the mother liquor retains low pH and residual chloride from catalyst decomposition. Acetylsalicylic acid is further processed into tablets, effervescent granules, and combination formulations; the same solvent-acylating system is used for selective acetylation of phenols and amines in other pharmaceutical intermediates.In ammoniated natural rubber latex primary processing, dilute acetic acid is metered into coagulation troughs to reduce latex pH from 9.5–10.0 to 4.5–5.0. The latex is received with dry rubber content of 30–35 wt% and ammonia content of 0.5–0.7 wt%. Glacial acetic acid is diluted to 1–2 wt% solution and applied at a dosage of 0.5–1.5 kg glacial acetic acid per 100 kg dry rubber content. Coagulation is performed in 316L stainless steel or high-density polyethylene troughs with slow agitation at 40–60 °C; the resulting coagulum is passed through creping rolls and dried to produce technically specified rubber grades such as SMR 10 and SMR 20 under ISO 2000. Over-acidification below pH 4.0 produces fragmented crumb, increases serum turbidity, and raises biological oxygen demand in the effluent, while delayed acidification above pH 5.5 leaves residual latex in the serum and reduces coagulum yield. Acid injection is therefore linked to in-line pH monitoring with feedback control on the metering pump, and the dilute acid lines are fitted with polyvinylidene fluoride or polypropylene valves because acetic acid corrodes brass and carbon steel fittings.
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Glacial acetic acid is the anhydrous liquid form of ethanoic acid, assigned CAS Registry Number 64-19-7 and EC number 200-580-7. Its molecular formula is C₂H₄O₂ with a relative molecular mass of 60.052 g·mol⁻¹. The descriptor “glacial” refers to the compound’s behaviour near room temperature: the pure material solidifies at 16.6°C, forming ice-like crystals. Industrial glacial grades are defined by acidimetric assay of ≥99.5% wt, with commercial anhydrous material typically supplied at 99.85% wt and water content below 0.15% wt. The primary manufacturing route is methanol carbonylation over rhodium–iodide or iridium–iodide catalysis at 150–200°C and 30–50 bar, followed by dehydration and distillation. This low-water product is chemically distinct from diluted technical acid at 20–80% acetic acid and from food-grade vinegar at 4–8% acidity; substitution into water-sensitive operations is not possible without removing the added water and compensating for reduced acidity.
Commercial glacial acetic acid is specified primarily by water content, trace chloride, acetaldehyde, formic acid, and heavy metals. The following property set is compiled from open safety data sheets and compendial monographs. Published data for exact lot-to-lot variance in trace chloride depends on the catalyst separation train; the values below represent consensus ranges for anhydrous commercial material.
| Parameter | Value / Range | Method / Standard |
|---|---|---|
| Assay (acidimetric) | 99.5–99.9% wt | USP-NF Glacial Acetic Acid monograph; titration with sodium hydroxide |
| Water content | ≤0.15% wt for commercial anhydride-free grade | ASTM E203-16 |
| Solidification point | 16.6°C | Differential scanning calorimetry |
| Boiling point at 101.325 kPa | 117.9°C | Distillation |
| Density at 25°C | 1.0492 g·cm⁻³ | Oscillating U-tube densimetry |
| Flash point (closed cup) | 39°C | ISO 3679 |
| Autoignition temperature | 427°C | ASTM E659 |
| Vapour pressure at 25°C | 2.07 kPa | Static manometry |
| pKa at 25°C | 4.756 | Potentiometric titration |
| Dynamic viscosity at 25°C | 1.056 mPa·s | Capillary viscometry |
| Refractive index at 20°C | 1.3716 | Abbe refractometry |
| Critical temperature | 321.67°C | Open literature |
| Critical pressure | 57.87 bar | Open literature |
Commercial supply chains usually distinguish polymer-grade, pharmaceutical-grade, and technical anhydrous material. Polymer-grade glacial acetic acid is specified for low moisture, low aldehyde, and low metal catalyst poisons; pharmaceutical grade must meet compendial identity and impurity criteria. The product name “glacial” does not itself define the grade, but in trade documents it is accompanied by assay, water content, reducing substances, and trace metal certificates. Published data for this specific configuration is limited because supplier specifications vary, but duplicate testing against USP-NF or ASTM methods is used to verify incoming lots.
Water mass fraction is the controlling variable because water participates directly in hydrolysis, esterification equilibrium, and catalyst poisoning. In acetylation chemistry, water consumes acetic anhydride and reduces the effective acetyl value; in esterification, water shifts equilibrium toward the free acid and alcohol. Technical-grade acetic acid at 80% mass fraction contains approximately 20% water and requires azeotropic or extractive dehydration before it can enter anhydrous synthesis. Glacial acetic acid at 99.85% acetic acid is specification-controlled for water below 0.15% wt, but it must be stored above 16.6°C or heat-traced. The following matrix compares material grades.
| Grade / Product | Acetic acid content | Water content | Solidification behaviour | Typical downstream use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glacial acetic acid | ≥99.5% wt; commercial 99.85% | ≤0.15–0.5% wt | Solidifies at 16.6°C | Vinyl acetate monomer, purified terephthalic acid, cellulose acetate, API processing |
| Technical acetic acid | 20–80% wt | 20–80% wt | Freezing point depressed below 0°C; 80% acid remains liquid below -20°C | pH neutralization, textile treatment, leather tanning |
| Vinegar (food grade) | 4–8% wt | 92–96% wt | Freezes near -2°C at 4% acidity | Food acidulant, condiment |
Chloride, iodide, and aldehyde impurities further differentiate polymer- and API-grade glacial acid from less-refined technical streams. Where iodide is carried over from methanol carbonylation, it must be reduced to low parts-per-million levels for platinum-group-metal catalyst systems in downstream oxidation and acetoxylation.
Storage system design is constrained by the 16.6°C solidification point and the 39°C closed-cup flash point. Distribution terminals and chemical plants maintain tank contents at 25–30°C through external circulation loops, because dead legs in unheated piping can nucleate solids when ambient temperature drops below the melting point. A recurring field failure mode is preferential crystal formation around pump suction strainers and level-instrument bridles, where flow is low and heat loss is high. Materials of construction for ambient storage include 316L stainless steel, PTFE, and high-density polyethylene; carbon steel is unsuitable where corrosion product contamination cannot be tolerated. Dry nitrogen blanketing is applied to prevent moisture uptake and keep the vapour space below the lower flammable limit of 4.0% v/v. The product must be segregated from strong oxidizers, strong bases, amines, and reactive metals such as aluminum, zinc, and copper; neutralization can be highly exothermic and can generate hydrogen with amphoteric metals.
Reactors in vinyl acetate monomer plants use low-water acetic acid in the vapour-phase acetoxylation of ethylene. The reaction is carried out over a supported palladium–gold catalyst at 170–200°C and 5–8 bar gauge in multitubular fixed beds. Water entering with the acid feed depresses selectivity to vinyl acetate monomer and increases carbon dioxide formation through the competing ethylene combustion pathway. Specifications for glacial feed therefore restrict water to ≤0.15% wt, while also limiting chloride and iodide to protect the noble-metal catalyst. Acetic acid conversion per pass is deliberately constrained to avoid excessive hot spots; heat removal is managed by boiling water on the shell side of the reactor. Downstream separation includes absorption and distillation, where water content alters relative volatility and reboiler energy demand. Published data for exact hot-spot temperature variance across individual tubes is limited, but process licensors commonly specify the low-water glacial feedstock rather than diluted acid.
Purified terephthalic acid oxidation uses acetic acid as the dominant liquid-phase reaction solvent. p-Xylene is oxidized with air in a stirred reactor at 150–208°C and 15–30 bar, using cobalt–manganese–bromide homogeneous catalysis. The acetic acid solvent must be low in water because water promotes catalyst precipitation and alters the bromide radical-chain balance; low-water glacial acid contributes stable catalyst turnover and narrower particle-size distribution on the terephthalic acid slurry. Solvent recovery is a major energy load: reactor off-gas and mother liquor are flashed, and water is separated from acetic acid by distillation. Published data for particle-size distribution versus water content is proprietary in most license descriptions, but the use of low-water acetic acid as the solvent is a common process requirement.
Cellulose acetylation with acetic anhydride employs acetic acid as a solvent and swelling agent. The degree of substitution and acetyl value are extremely sensitive to water because water reacts with acetic anhydride to form two moles of acetic acid, thereby lowering the available acetylation agent. Glacial acetic acid containing ≤0.15% wt water is used in the primary dissolution step, with sulphuric acid or perchloric acid as catalyst at controlled temperature. In acetate ester manufacture, including ethyl acetate and n-butyl acetate, the reaction is equilibrium-limited; continuous removal of water by reactive distillation or entrainer-based separation shortens the time to equilibrium, and low-water feedstock reduces the initial water load to the column. Typical industrial batch reactors are equipped with condenser–decanter sets and operate at atmospheric pressure when the ester forms a suitable azeotrope.
Glacial acetic acid carries UN number 2789 and is regulated as a corrosive substance in transport Class 8, packing group II. Its GHS classification includes flammable liquid Category 3, skin corrosion Category 1A, and serious eye damage Category 1. The closed-cup flash point of 39°C means that drum-filling and storage operations enter fire-code controls at ambient temperatures approaching that value. Vapour pressure at 25°C is 2.07 kPa; the lower and upper flammable limits at 25°C are 4.0% v/v and 16.0% v/v, respectively. For occupational exposure, ACGIH lists a TLV-TWA of 10 ppm and STEL of 15 ppm. Process vents are routed to scrubbers or thermal oxidizers. The material is incompatible with strong oxidizers and strong bases; storage tanks should be grounded and inerted if heated near the flash point.
Pharmaceutical manufacturing uses glacial acetic acid as an acidifying agent and reaction medium where water content and compendial compliance are critical. USP-NF and Ph.Eur. monographs require assay ≥99.5% and limit chloride, sulfate, arsenic, lead, and readily oxidizable impurities. The product is also a precursor to acetic anhydride, acetyl chloride, monochloroacetic acid, and diketene. In monochloroacetic acid synthesis, acetic acid is chlorinated in the presence of acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride as catalyst; low water is required to avoid hydrolysis of the halogenating agent and to limit side-product formation. Production lines for this derivative use glass-lined or PTFE-lined equipment and maintain the reactor above the freezing point of the glacial feedstock. Published data for exact side-product distribution is often restricted by process licenses, but the water constraint is consistently documented in open technical literature.
